The Evolving Terminology Surrounding the Japanese American Wartime Experience

Words matter immensely.

They hold a subtle, quiet power to them that can inspire change, educate people, incite violence, topple empires, and dismantle archaic laws.

They evoke strong feelings and emotions from us as individuals. 

They can reduce and dismiss important topics and events by using euphemisms and lesser words, or they can convey the importance of something by using direct and strong vocabulary.

This is why terminology is so important. 

It recently came to my attention that the terminology surrounding the Japanese American (JA) wartime experience has been changing and evolving in a large way. It’s a topic that has been discussed since the mid to late 20th century; however, it’s become more “mainstream” over the past few years, as big JA organizations have been promoting the terminology movement and intentionally moving away from using the word “internment” and using “concentration camp” instead.

A few months ago, I wrote and published a two-part article about my grandma’s time in the camps. At the time of writing it, I was still using the word “internment camp” because I was unaware of the nuances in JA terminology. I would use words like “incarceration,” “internment,” “relocation camp,” and others synonymously because that was what I was used to seeing throughout my numerous sources of research. Internment camp is still the most popular term used to describe the camps by the general (mostly non-JA-affiliated) media and public. After the publishing of my second article, I was notified of the change by some vitriolic attacks on Instagram regarding my misuse of “internment.” The attacks became so vicious that I ended up feeling threatened by someone who posted my private Instagram page to her story in order to encourage her followers to go to the post and attack me further. I had to block her. The post itself contained a photograph of my beautiful, deceased grandma in whose memory I wrote this article. The barrage of attacks against me and then my publisher under her image were incredibly disrespectful and an insult to her memory. I spoke with my publisher, and we agreed to edit my two articles by removing instances of the word “internment” and adding in a disclaimer about it. While I don’t like to give in to bullies, there was an important point hidden underneath all the vitriol. That is what initially inspired me to write this article, so I researched the subject further. What I’ve discovered is truly interesting and provided insight on the importance of terminology in all aspects of life, history, and social justice.

DENSHO AND TERMINOLOGY

Densho is a leading organization in the JA community that I’ve had the pleasure of watching grow from a small online encyclopedia to the powerhouse that it is today. They were a research source for my undergraduate senior thesis. I used them again for an essay for my MA in history, and now for this article. I’ve kept up with them through the years over social media and am impressed with how much they’ve grown over the seven or eight years since I discovered them. The organization’s mission is “to preserve and share history of the WWII incarceration of Japanese Americans to promote equity and justice today.” They document the testimonies of Japanese Americans who were incarcerated in the camps, offering firsthand accounts, historical pictures, teacher resources, and other kinds of content geared towards education and promoting the principles of equal justice for all. Their page on terminology is frequently cited by various people, organizations, and sources. https://densho.org/terminology/

Densho addresses four important distinctions: forced removal versus “evacuation,” incarceration vs “internment,” Japanese American versus “Japanese,” and concentration camps versus “relocation centers.” The following explanation is directly from their terminology page.

Forced removal vs “evacuation”

“In early 1942, Japanese Americans were forcibly removed from the West Coast and forbidden to return. The government called this an ‘evacuation,’ implying the forced move was a precaution for Japanese Americans’ own safety, as in a natural disaster. In reality, this was a targeted exile of a single ethnic minority—carried out by armed soldiers, enforced by lawmakers and elected officials, and motivated, in part, by a desire to reap economic gains from the farmland and property Japanese Americans were forced to leave behind. ‘Exclusion’ and ‘mass removal’ are therefore more apt than euphemisms such as ‘evacuation’ and ‘relocation,’ because Japanese Americans were expelled from the West Coast and subject to arrest if they returned.”

Incarceration vs “internment”

The commonly used term ‘internment’ fails to accurately describe what happened to Japanese Americans during WWII. ‘Internment’ refers to the legally permissible, though morally questionable, detention of ‘enemy aliens’ in time of war. There were approximately 8,000 Issei (‘first generation’) arrested as enemy aliens and subjected to what could be described as ‘internment’ in a separate set of camps run by the Army or Department of Justice.* This term becomes a misleading, othering euphemism when applied to American citizens detained by their own government; yet two-thirds of Japanese Americans incarcerated during WWII were U.S. citizens by birth and right.

Although ‘internment’ is a recognized and widely used term, we encourage the use of ‘incarceration,’ except in the specific case of Japanese Americans detained by the Army or DOJ. ‘Detention’ is used interchangeably—although some argue that the word denotes a shorter period of confinement than the nearly four years the camps were in operation.

*A smaller number of Nisei, mostly Kibei and mostly in Hawai`i, were also swept up in the DOJ internment system.

Japanese American vs “Japanese”

“Media outlets and other sources often refer to the more than 120,000* people of Japanese descent imprisoned by the U.S. government during WWII as simply ‘Japanese’—but this both erases their American identity and conflates Japanese Americans with Japanese citizens in Japan. The wartime government employed this strategy itself, inventing the orwellian term ‘non-alien’ to describe Japanese American citizens in public documents.

The Nisei (‘second generation’) were U.S. citizens born to Japanese immigrant parents in the United States. Many had never set foot in Japan. Their Issei parents were forbidden by discriminatory law from becoming naturalized American citizens, but by the 1940s most had lived in the United States for decades and raised their families here. Most had no plans of returning to Japan, and would have become naturalized citizens if allowed. By birth or by choice, Japanese Americans were just that—American.

*The oft-cited ‘120,000’ figure comes from the War Relocation Authority’s official statistical compilation, The Evacuated People, which cites a total of 120,313 people in the WRA system. However, including DOJ/Army internees and those who were held in ‘assembly centers’ but resettled before being transferred to WRA custody, that number is closer to 126,000.

Concentration camps vs “relocation centers”

“There is still some debate over the most appropriate terminology for the camps where Japanese Americans were confined during WWII. At first, Japanese Americans were held in temporary camps the government called ‘assembly centers’—facilities surrounded by fences and guarded by military police. This term is clearly euphemistic in nature, as the ‘assembly’ was carried out by military and political force. Therefore, we recommend its use only as part of a proper noun (e.g. ‘Puyallup Assembly Center’) or in quotation marks for specific references to this type of facility.

Japanese Americans were later transferred to longer-term camps which the government called ‘relocation centers.’ (Some officials, including the president, also referred to them as ‘concentration camps’ in internal memos.) Despite the seemingly innocuous name, these were prisons—compounds of barracks surrounded by barbed wire fences and patrolled by armed guards—which Japanese Americans could not leave without permission. ‘Relocation center’ fails to convey the harsh conditions and forced confinement of these facilities. As prison camps outside the normal criminal justice system, designed to confine civilians for military and political purposes on the basis of race and ethnicity, these sites also fit the definition of ‘concentration camps.’ As such, Densho’s preferred term is ‘concentration camp’ (e.g. ‘Minidoka concentration camp’). We do also use other terms, such as ‘incarceration camp’ or ‘prison camp,’ but urge the avoidance of euphemisms such as ‘relocation center’ and ‘internment camp.’

Our use of ‘concentration camp’ is intended to accurately describe what Japanese Americans were subjected to during WWII, and is not meant to undermine the experiences of Holocaust survivors or to conflate these two histories in any way. Like many Holocaust studies scholars, we believe that ‘concentration camp’ is a euphemism for the Nazi death camps where millions of innocent Jews and other political prisoners were killed. America’s concentration camps were very different from Nazi Germany’s, but they, and dozens more historical and contemporary examples, do have one thing in common: people in power removed a minority group from the general population and the rest of society let it happen.” 

RESEARCH

During my research phase, I reached out to many notable JA organizations and a large variety of members of the JA community. I was lucky enough to connect with Densho and have a Zoom meeting with Brian Niiya, their Content Director. 

Brian reminded me that the terminology issue sprang up in the 1970s during the early redress movement. Leaders of the movement wanted to eliminate the use of euphemistic words (i.e. relocation, evacuation) to describe their experience. According to Brian, the 1990s saw a push for moving away from “internment” and using “concentration camp” instead. 

I asked Brian about people, like myself, who aren’t comfortable with using the term “concentration camp,” and he informed me that although he believes it’s the best term to use, it’s ok if people don’t want to use it. I personally will only use “concentration camp” if I’m trying to make a strong and direct point, but otherwise I don’t like using it. I have also studied the Holocaust extensively and don’t like the comparisons it inevitably invites. Although “concentration camp” is a euphemism used for the death and extermination camps of the Nazis, the term has become synonymous with the Holocaust in contemporary times. Brian also mentioned that there are highly respected scholars who chose not to use that term, citing Alice Young Murray and Eric Muller as two examples. Neither of these scholars use “concentration camp” in their books.

I have tirelessly searched online for an “internment” definition similar to the alien-only definition provided by Densho. However, all the definitions I found basically say: the state of being confined as a prisoner, especially for political or military reasons. 

Many people I know who are interested in the terminology discussion looked up this definition and sent it back to me asking for an explanation. I myself did not have one so I put this forth to Brian and he was able to provide further insight into this: 

“The term ‘internment’ is misapplied. The camps that the Issei were kept in can properly be called internment camps but the War Relocation Authority camps that imprisoned American citizens cannot be properly applied.

Colloquially, people use internment interchangeably with incarceration. In general dictionaries, the definition will be non-specific. 

Part of the problem is there hasn’t been a replacement term for internment as this broad term. It’s not ideal to replace internment with these terms that are associated with penal institutions that imply guilt.”

Many thanks to Brian Niiya for discussing this important topic with me. 

SPEAKING TO MEMBERS OF THE JA COMMUNITY

My research also included a brief questionnaire on terminology and word choices. I sent a  six-question survey to a variety of people in the JA community. 

The variety in the responses received indicate that many divisions exist within the JA community itself over the preferred terminology used. I will sum up my findings through each question.

Question One

 Are you an active member of the Japanese American community? (i.e. politically, culturally, or some other way? I’d like you to tell me the ways that you’re involved in the community, whether it be big or small.) 

The answers here were diverse – a few people said no but most said yes, just in different ways. 

Some didn’t specify how they are active but said they are very active; some said they are culturally active; some are involved with their Buddhist church; some are involved with the Japanese American National Museum (JANM) and some with the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL); some are involved with a variety of JA organizations.

Question Two

What words have you used throughout your life to refer to the JA wartime experience?

The majority of people here actually said “internment” or “internment camp.” A few mentioned “concentration camp” as well. Someone said: “I’ve transitioned from using the terms ‘intern/internment/internee’ to ‘incarcerate/incarceration/incarceree’. In addition to ‘incarceration camps’, I refer to them as ‘prison camps’.” Another person provided a long list of the words they’ve used: “Internment camp, incarcerated, forcibly removed, Department of Justice camps, relocation camp, propaganda, wartime hysteria, racism, fear”.

Question Three

Have you heard about the recent changes in terminology surrounding the JA wartime experience – i.e. the move away from “internment” to “incarceration,” the more prominent use of “concentration camps,” and the move away from using “relocation camps”?

Half of the people said no and half of the people said yes. It was split fairly even down the middle. One person mentioned that they think there needs to be more education around the use of the word “concentration camp” because of its association with the Nazi death camps. Another person shared their own personal experience: “My understanding was that there were two different camps. One for suspected criminals – concentration camps, and one for innocent families – relocation camps. I didn’t hear the term internment camps until I was older – high school or college. Incarceration is used today to describe jailed criminals. It would be offensive to me if someone suggested that my mother was incarcerated.” One individual pointed out that this is, in fact, not a recent change: “Yes, but the changes are not recent. There were JA community discussions about the euphemisms embedded in terminology like ‘relocation and internment’ during the 1960’s. The sentiment in the Japanese American community was that their experience being forcibly removed from their homes and incarcerated in camps out in the middle of no-where was extremely unjust, and efforts began immediately after the end of WWII to correct the narrative and address the injustice.”

Question Four

What words are you comfortable with using now?

I was surprised that the majority of the answers here were “internment camp.” A few people said “concentration camp” and one person made a very good point: “I guess it depends on context. If among JAs or Asian Americans I feel ok saying concentration camp or incarceration. But I feel less comfortable using those terms in settings where people are not aware of or ignorant about WWII experiences.”

I believe that I should also note that my grandma, a survivor of the camp, referred to them as “relocation camps” in her memoirs.

Question Five

What are your thoughts on the changing terminology and the acknowledgement of words like “internment” and “relocation” being euphemisms and the move away from using them?

I believe that the answers to this question are all worth noting:

Concentration camps are synonymous with the Nazi genocide of Jews and that’s not what happened with JA. They were however wrongly and forcibly removed from their homes, lost possession[s] and property that their family worked hard for because of a foreign attack from a non white nation. No one set up “internment camps” during the Cold War for any Eastern Europeans. Why?

I think these are too “soft” for what the reality of the situation was. People were forced to leave their lives and these terms make it sound like it was more of a choice. I am happy that people are thinking more about leaving these terms behind. This is something my family has talked about for a long time, but when seeing the amount of education that is common on this subject (very little education for the average student), it needs to be addressed as a negative part of US History.

I am for using terms that are not euphemisms.

I personally don’t feel comfortable referring to Japanese internment as “concentration camps.”

JA people, even Nisei who had citizenships were denied their legal rights and sent to concentration camps. They lost their assets and also their pride.

Accompanied by education, I think whatever words that come closer to the truth of the experience are a move in the right direction.

While I believe the “internment” of JA was unjust and disgraceful, I don’t feel the need to change the terminology that is already established. Currently our society is experiencing many issues of racism. So I can understand why some individuals may want to use different words.

Internment camp is a term that is specific to the Japanese American experience during WWII. I do not consider “internment” to be a euphemism. I think it would be inappropriate to use the term concentration camp. Was the Minidoka experience so similar to the Auschwitz experience? Then let us not equate them by using the same words to label them.

I learned about the incarceration experience at JANM and so that vocabulary was what I used first. I may be biased in that way because I was first exposed and did the deep dive at JANM because of my job, and so those terms were my first vocabulary and seem most correct to me. In other Non-JA settings, admittedly it is a little awkward sometimes to use the stronger terms, but as I reflect on it, it seems like the right terminology rather than euphemistic language.

This is 2021- times change and terminology has changed.

I don’t think the word “internment” is a euphemism, and I grew up using that word. Using this word doesn’t lessen the unjust and horrible conditions I know the JAs experienced there.

I’m all for changing = correcting the terminology because the old euphemisms were a cover-up for the injustice inflicted on Japanese Americans, 2/3rd of whom were American citizens. There were political and economic forces (e.g. successful Japanese American farmers that were highly resented by white farmers) that had nothing to do with Japan bombing Pearl Harbor.

Again, Densho has been an invaluable resource. Their whole mission is to rightly preserve and tell the story of the Japanese American World War II experience. https://densho.org/core-story/

It really hasn’t been explained to me why internment is unacceptable. I can see why relocation camp should not be used.

Question Six

Have you felt like you’ve experienced any forms of discrimination because of your heritage and the history of Japan in WWII?

I was also surprised with the answers here because the majority of people answered no. A few people have experienced racism throughout their lives, but it’s mainly been smaller aggressions and smatterings of racist behavior.

I, however, have had the misfortune of experiencing discrimination because of my heritage and the history of Japan from WWII. My first boyfriend turned out to be a racist.

Since I am mixed-race, I am typically seen as “Asian” by white people and “white/Western/foreign” by Asian people. 

My ex was a white man in the US Navy from a rich, privileged background. 

He was extremely racist and sexist to me. 

He would have me drive to pick him up from the naval base, but then wouldn’t let me drive back because I was “a bad driver since I was an Asian female.”

He would swat at me at times and say “bad Asian!” like he was disciplining a dog. 

But perhaps one of the worst things he did to me was his repeated (and I say REPEATED) verbal assaults. He would get in my face and scream “YOU BOMBED PEARL HARBOR! YOU BOMBED PEARL HARBOR!” He would even get his Navy friends to join in. They would all surround me, screaming this at me. 

And this ex knew that my grandma was in the Japanese American prison camps.

He was my first boyfriend, and I was young, so I struggled to find my voice and stand up to him. I gained that ability after we broke up. I became a huge feminist and big advocate of the JA wartime experience. Although, I do not like to credit an ignorant white man for my growth into the strong feminist I am today. But I guess what doesn’t kill us, makes us stronger. 

That was some of the worst discrimination I’ve faced as a Japanese American. Of course there’s been multiple instances of the classic ignorance people show towards anyone Asian – but this was the worst. 

A DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE FROM A CAMP SURVIVOR

My great aunt Chidori Reynolds (née Ogawa) was the only one from her family forced into a  camp. The Ogawas, my other Japanese family, were from Hawai’i, but Chidori had the misfortune of living on the mainland during the war. When she was released, she became the first Nisei woman from Hawai’i to enlist in the military. I was able to track down some primary source newspapers covering her work in the WACs and found a quote by her that, at the least, is very interesting, and, at the most, can be considered quite inflammatory: “Speaking of her experiences in the relocation camps, Private Ogawa said that although she was glad when she was released, she didn’t mind it because she knew it was an emergency measure and the only way to handle the problem presented by the Japanese living on the mainland with the speed that was necessary.”* I was shocked when I read that but I think it goes to show that this topic is much more nuanced than I previously believed.

*This quote is from the Wednesday June 7, 1944 edition of the Honolulu Star-Bulletin.

COMMENTS FROM THE JEWISH COMMUNITY

All the Jewish community members I spoke with, except for one, seemed to have no problem with the JA community using the term “concentration camp.”  A few of them mentioned that there are people they know and other members of the Jewish community who would be upset by it. 

I think it is accurate to say that questions like these will never evoke a singular, united response from any persecuted groups of people. Everyone will have a different answer; people will always disagree within communities themselves. I do not speak for the Japanese American community as a whole, just like how none of the individuals I spoke to represent their entire community either. It is important to speak to a diverse group of people to try and gauge an accurate representation of people’s thoughts and opinions.

One person made a point of describing how important language and terminology are to them, while another made the opposite point: “the words used should not be the concern. As long as language calls attention to the inhumane treatment, that’s what we should focus on: the inhumane treatment and how to stop it.”

Some more notable responses:

“Honestly, you are right, concentration camps are a euphemism for camps to hold ‘political prisoners’ but obviously this was not the case. I use concentration camp, but I also use the words labor and death camps, obviously most of the camps were death camps, but in WW2, there were camps that were ‘labor’ camps too. Maybe these would be more fitting terms. Maybe in your article you can refer to this terminology and how internment is not appropriate, these were labor camps that took ‘political prisoners’ away from their families and homes simply because of their race, ethnicity, or religion. That’s not internment, that’s not political prisoners, that’s not protection, it’s a discriminatory act that enables others to think it’s ok to be racist and discriminatory as well. This is why we STILL have a problem with racism in the US because our government has never protected us but singled us out as enemies rather than uniting and embracing our diversity as a country. This is why we are divided as a country.

As a teacher and a Jew, whatever the terminology, the concept is the main focus. What Japanese Americans went through in those camps can never be erased, that’s on the US to admit they made a BIG mistake and to educate the future generation about what REALLY happened in the camps so that it will never happen again.”

“For me, personally, the phrase ‘concentration camps’ is emotionally charged and connotes systemic genocide. While the US treatment of the Japanese Americans was horrific, it did not include gas chambers, death ovens, bizarre medical experiments and all sorts of things that were meant to destroy a group of people.”

“In general the Jews were slaughtered in the concentration camps and the Japanese Americans were not killed (for the most part) in the internment camps. But, after doing some reading on this subject and some thinking about the definitions, I think the connotation of a concentration camp as a death camp is not the same as its actual definition. And, given that an internment camp is a type of concentration camp, as a Jew, I am not offended by [the] use of the term concentration camp to refer to the camps in which Japanese were imprisoned in the Western U.S. during WWII. In fact, if the use of this term helps to bring awareness of the brutality of these camps and of the horrible nature of the Executive Order 9066, then I think it should be used by all means.  Perhaps the answer is start referring to the Nazi concentration camps as death or elimination camps. But they’re all concentration camps.”

“First, I think that if we truly believe in ‘never again’ when it comes to the Holocaust, we have to remember that the Holocaust didn’t only target Jewish people. 

And we have to remember that while the killing of prisoners in Nazi camps was the ultimate evil, the imprisonment of them is itself a huge evil. (Just as the forced removal of Native Americans to reservations was itself a great evil, even had it been completely peaceful.)

I also think it’s important not to see the Holocaust as an exceptional evil, one that cannot be compared to others. It’s important to see a continuity among the Holocaust and the Japanese internment camps and the Middle Passage/chattel slavery. 

This doesn’t mean we should elide the differences across these historical incidents either. But it’s fruitful to consider the overlap between, say, the European antisemitic discourse of Jewish split loyalties and the similar charges leveled at Japanese Americans during WWII, just as we see similar discourses in anti-immigration discourses when it comes to demands for total assimilation.

It’s deeply annoying when everything we don’t like is called ‘fascist’ and anyone to the right of us is a ‘Nazi,’ but that’s not what I see happening [when] people refer to the internment camps as concentration camps. That said, I can also respect the desire to reserve that term for the Nazi death camps out of a desire, I imagine, to make ‘concentration camp’ and ‘death camp’ synonymous terms and to respect the historical specificity of the Holocaust.”

MY PERSONAL EXPERIENCES AND OPINIONS

One thing I’ve recently learned is the nuance surrounding the whole Japanese American experience during WWII. Back in 2013-2014 when I was researching and writing my senior thesis, the information presented about the camps was more “uniform” and generalized.

The Japanese Americans were generally all presented as well-behaved, well-mannered. They described their experience as “sho ga nai”/”shikata ga nai” (“it is what it is”/”it can’t be helped”), the model minority stereotype that America loved to force upon us. While part of that is true, that attitude is very Japanese. My family themselves didn’t complain about the camps but they did discuss them and help educate us.

I recently read the book “No-No Boy” by John Okada. It’s about the aftermath of the incarceration and the boys who refused to put their signatures on documents at the camps that signed them up for the draft and pledged allegiance to the U.S, the same country that had incarcerated them in camps. They were imprisoned and spent the rest of the war in jail. In addition, the Japanese American community ostracized them after they returned home. 

I’ve also recently learned about the cold-blooded murder of a man out walking his dog in one of the camps. My resources from before said that there were no unnatural deaths in the camps or violence imposed upon the Japanese. This is now proving to be untrue. 

All this is to say that the history, as well as the terminology, surrounding the camps is changing as we uncover more things and evolve as a society.

I have been using the words “internment camp” for all of my life up until a few months ago. I was surprised to see the response I received and was opened up to a brand new terminological discourse. I believed I was quite the expert on the camps and the JA wartime experience, but this goes to show that I still have a lot more to learn. 

When I see the words “internment camp” now, I cringe. I feel uncomfortable because it looks wrong to me. However, when I see the words “concentration camp” being used, I feel uncomfortable as well. This term still holds a large tie to the Holocaust for me, which is a topic that I’ve also spent a lot of my life studying as well. I’m currently at a loss of what to call them. To people who know me and other Japanese Americans, I just refer to them as “the camps.” I’ll need to spend more time trying to figure out what I myself am personally comfortable with. I am still very much on this terminological journey.

NEXT STEPS

I believe the next step to take is simple: education. Spread the word! Tell your friends, your colleagues, your family, your classmates, your enemies, people on Facebook, strangers on the street, anyone. I can confidently say that I myself have managed to bring more awareness around this topic through both my pursuit of research and through mentioning it in conversations I have, both online and in person. Most people tend to live in a bubble and so many people outside of the JA community have either never heard of the camps or only heard about them once they were older. Funnily enough, when I lived in Paris and had to explain (all in French, bien sûr) why I can’t speak Japanese to the many many French people who asked what I am (my fellow mixed race people – how sick are you of hearing “what are you?”), I was given the chance to educate them about the JA wartime experience. Et voilà, I was even able to educate the people of Paris about the camps.

Discover Nikkei, a project of the Japanese American National Museum, is a community website about Nikkei identity, history, and experiences. They were kind enough to send me some important articles surrounding the topic of terminology:

WORDS CAN LIE OR CLARIFY: Terminology of the World War II Incarceration of Japanese Americans* 

By Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga

Words Do Matter: A Note on Inappropriate Terminology and the Incarceration of the Japanese Americans 

By Roger Daniels

JANM’s former curator also talked about this…

“Concentration Camp” or “Relocation Center” – What’s in a Name?

By James A. Hirabayashi 

Also, in 2019, their curator, Karen Ishizuka, talked about this matter. 

CONCLUSION

Unfortunately, we all know that history repeats itself. That’s the premise of this history blog. We continue to see horrifying instances of racism, prejudice, and imprisonment today. Migrants fleeing their violent homes just to find themselves imprisoned in camps at the US border; the alleged treatment of Uighurs in China; the ethnic cleansing of the Palestinians; the indigenous residential schools in Canada; the police murdering Black Americans; and the violent plague of Anti-Asian hate, to name a few. The pages of history are bloodied by the constant cyclical nature of violence and discrimination. Is it human nature? Perhaps it is. But perhaps we also have the capacity to be better. We as humans are able to love as blindly as we hate, sometimes even confusing and conflating the two. But we can be better. It is our responsibility as human beings to acknowledge the humanity in our neighbors, regardless of our outward differences. We all share one thing: the gift of human life. We can’t throw that away.

In closing, I’d like to invite you, the reader, to continue learning about the terminology surrounding the JA experience, to spread the knowledge, and to please be kind on the internet to people who aren’t aware of this change in terminology yet. Thank you.

Influential Women: Yayoi Kusama

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“Our earth is only one polka dot among a million stars in the cosmos. Polka dots are a way to infinity. When we obliterate nature and our bodies with polka dots, we become part of the unity of our environment.”

Yayoi Kusama is a Japanese contemporary artist who works in sculpture, painting, installation, performance, film, fashion, poetry, fiction, and other arts. She works in conceptual art, with aspects of feminism, minimalism, surrealism, Art Brut, pop art, and abstract expressionism.

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She exploded into international fame a few years ago with her Infinity Rooms exhibitions and eye-catching polka dot style. However, she’s been a highly influential figure in the art world since the 1960s—her influence was overlooked because of her race and gender. A tale as old as time.

Kusama was born on March 22, 1929 in Matsumoto, Nagano. She is 91 going on 92; patrons still fall in line—especially because she is one of the most important living artists to come out of Japan.

When she was young, she had a fair amount of family issues because her mother assumed that her father was having an affair and forced Kusama to spy on him. This eventually caused her to claim to experience visual hallucinations—she regularly saw dense concentrations of lights and circles, which prompted her to begin painting dot patterns that became the inspiration for her iconic polka dot work and fashion. It also led to a life-long and multifaceted obsession with sex. She found it both fascinating and disgusting and produced numerous phallic artworks as a result of this.

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Kusama tells a story of how when she was a little girl she had a hallucination that freaked her out—she was in a field of flowers that started talking to her. The heads of flowers transformed into dots that went on as far as she could see, and she felt as if she was disappearing, or “self-obliterating,” into this field of endless dots.

In 1939, at the age of 10, she created the drawing “Untitled,” which showed an image of her mother’s face against a background all covered in polka dots. The polka dots represent not only what she saw but also the universe as a whole and its infinite nature. By adding marks and dots to her art, she feels as if she is making them, and herself, melt into and become part of the bigger universe. This piece was a foreshadow into her future as an artist, with her career primarily focusing on her lifelong exploration into herself, an obsession with polka dots, and the various ways she could represent self-obliteration.

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Growing up, her mother was not supportive of Kusama becoming an artist. She would rip up her works of art and steal them away from her. But this did not deter her. Kusama’s mother wanted her to become a traditional and conventional Japanese housewife—a role that she was not suited for. She strongly persevered and did not let go of her artistic pursuits.

With the outbreak of WWII, Kusama was conscripted to work for 12 hours a day in a parachute factory. Despite this exhausting task, she still found the time and resources to produce art. She began publicly exhibiting her work in group exhibitions throughout her teens, and in 1948, she convinced her parents to let her go to Kyoto to study nihonga. She was trained at the Kyoto School of Arts and Crafts but became frustrated with the distinctively traditional Japanese style of nihonga and turned to American abstract expressionism for inspiration. Kusama’s great ambition and talent were recognized when she began staging solo shows in her hometown in the early 1950s. In 1955, she started a written dialogue with the American artist Georgia O’Keeffe, and decided that she wanted to go to the U.S.

“My constant battle with art began when I was still a child. But my destiny was decided when I made up my mind to leave Japan and journey to America.”

In 1957, Yayoi Kusama entered the U.S. via my hometown, Seattle. On her visa application, she officially declared her reason for entry as exhibiting art in Seattle. Her first show in the U.S. was a solo show at the Zoë Dusanne Gallery. It included a group of around 20 watercolors and pastels selected from the 200 works that Kusama brought with her from Japan. She began her international career in Seattle, which is probably why Seattle was selected as one of the U.S. cities to host her renowned “Infinity Rooms” exhibit.

In a 1957 Seattle Times feature on her solo show, Louis Guzzo pointed out that, “several of the smaller works are beautiful, but one must study them closely to realize the intricacies of their microscopic worlds.” Kusama asserts that all of her work is part of a whole, a whole that we are all a part of in her concept of the infinite.

After staying for a year in Seattle, Kusama moved on to New York City. In the 1960s she became a key figure in the New York avant-garde movements but it wasn’t until after her departure in the 1970s when her work was recognized with the credit it deserved.

During her early years in the States, Kusama emphasized her foreignness by dressing in formal Japanese kimono she had brought from Japan for her private art viewings. In 1966, she made her slide work, Walking Piece, which recorded the artist walking through desolate NYC streets in a bright pink floral kimono. She applied the kimono as a symbol of otherness and intentionally positioned herself as a vivid outsider in the midst of an unfriendly and foreign city.

Despite her broken English, she came into contact with famous artists like Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg, and Joseph Cornell. She was welcomed as an outsider but was sometimes refused entrance to galleries or exhibits because of her race and gender. As a female Japanese artist trying to create new and convention-defying art in this white male-dominated society, she was a big influence on many famous artists—but was discredited and ripped off by the same men. Having been taken advantage of by numerous famous male artists, she became depressed and attempted suicide.

Yayoi Kusama returned to Japan in 1973 and underwent treatment for depersonalization syndrome. In 1977, she admitted herself into a psychiatric hospital in Tokyo and continues to live there today. She has a studio in close proximity to the hospital where she continues to create every day. In 1993, she was selected to represent Japan in the Venice Biennale and has had a large number of solo exhibitions around the world, including the Serpentine Gallery in London, the National Museum of Modern Art in Tokyo, and the Museum of Modern Art in New York. There’s also an entire museum in Tokyo dedicated to her, called the Yayoi Kusama Museum.

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Kusama’s work and identity as an artist have always been intertwined—she is often seen photographed together with her art. Through an autobiographical look at her psychology and mental illness, she disassembles her identity and frees herself through her art. She continues to create pieces of “self-obliteration” by using polka dots to unify both herself and ourselves with the universe. Her Infinity Rooms exhibition creates this environment of self-obliteration for us by surrounding us in mirrored rooms filled with flashing colored LED lights. The lights reflect endlessly in the mirrors, creating an engulfing sense of infinity and the feeling of becoming one with the universe—the feeling of becoming one with Yayoi Kusama.

A note: I was lucky enough to attend the Infinity Rooms exhibit in Seattle and have posted pictures from it below.

Sources: “5 Influential Japanese Women Breaking Stereotypes”; “The Self-Obliteration of Yayoi Kusama”; “Iconic Faces: 5 Renowned Japanese Women You Should Know”; “Who is Yayoi Kusama?”; “Kusama’s Full Circle”; “Yayoi Kusama”; “Kusama and Fashion”; “Yayoi Kusama’s Early Years”

Infinity Mirrors. Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Infinity Mirrored Room—Aftermath of Obliteration of Eternity. 2009. Wood, mirror, plastic, acrylic, LEDs, and aluminum.Collection of the artist. Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Infinity Mirror Room—Phalli’s Field. 1965/2016. Stuffed cotton, board, and mirrors. Collection of the artist. Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Infinity Mirrored Room—Love Forever. 1966/1994. Wood, mirrors, metal, and lightbulbs. Collection of Ota Fine Arts, Tokyo/Singapore. Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Dots Obsession—Love Transformed into Dots. 2007, installed 2017. Vinyl balloons, balloon dome with mirror room, peep-in mirror dome, and video projection. Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

We were given sheets of polka dot stickers to transform a white furnished room into our own obliteration space. We attended the exhibition at the beginning of its opening, so the room still had a lot of white space. By the closing of the exhibition, the entire room was obliterated in colorful polka dots. Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

My mother enjoying the experience. Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Some people got creative and attached their polka dots to other polka dots, like on this clock. Photo by Malia Ogawa.

Influential Women: Sada Yacco x Cyclicity

On the advent of the twentieth century, an exquisitely talented Japanese geisha arrived in the U.S. and took the West by storm. Traveling on to Europe, she was destined to leave her mark on each city and every heart fortunate enough to be graced by her presence. Japan, and its enchanting representative, had arrived.

Sada Yacco by Alfredo Müller, 1899-1900

Sadayakko Kawakami (commonly known as Sada Yacco) was born on July 18, 1871, the youngest of 12 children. At the early age of four, she was sent to work in the Hamada geisha house, located in the Yoshicho district of Tokyo. Three years later, her father died and the proprietress of the Hamada house adopted Sada as her heir.

She debuted at the age of 12 as an o-shaku (an apprentice geisha), and received her first geisha name. She was given the name Ko-yakko, or Little Yakko. She was sent to a Shinto priest to learn how to read and write, which was revolutionary at the time because women’s education was only just beginning. She took secret lessons in judo and learned how to ride horses and play billiards.

In 1886, her mizuage was sold to Prime Minister Ito Hirobumi at the age of 15. Her coming-of-age ceremony gave her the name Yakko, and the prestige of her patron increased her popularity at teahouses. He remained her patron, and she his mistress, for three years.

She discovered a passion for acting through the entertainment world of the geisha. Geisha performed music and dance of the same genre as kabuki, including dance solos from kabuki plays—but only for private and exclusive customers. Yakko much preferred the exciting male roles in these performances, with their dramatic posing and fight scenes, over the coy women’s parts.

Yakko married an actor named Otojiro Kawakami in October 1893. She had met him during a private performance by his troupe for the prime minister and a select few geisha. His flamboyant and powerful personality attracted her to him instantly. Their shared love for the stage could also have played an important factor in their mutual attraction.

In 1899, at the turn of the century, they set out with a theater troupe for San Francisco, where Yakko was promoted as the starlet of the troupe. She was given the stage name “Sadayakko” and debuted on May 25th. Her dance was bewitching and so skillful that she ignited a storm of applause. 

Sada Yakko circa 1910s

Her dance wowed audiences immediately and her debut was a great success. She became an icon—the entrancing Yakko, the most celebrated geisha in Japan and a woman who bewitched Westerners without the ability to speak a word of their language.

Their first tour was across the United States from June 1899 to April 1900. It crossed the Atlantic and continued on to Europe from May 1900 to November 1901. They departed for their second tour in April 1901 and toured around Europe until July 1902.

Once arriving in America, Sada Yakko and her troupe quickly found success. After winning the respect and recognition of superstar Isadora Duncan, another celebrity, American Loïe Fuller elevated her status even further. Thanks to him, the doors of the theatre in Paris were opened to her, and he even acted as an interpreter in her interviews with foreign magazines. In 1900, Sada Yakko performed The Geisha and the Knight in Paris as part of the Exposition Universelle and became an overnight success. It was the first time that a Japanese theatre troupe had appeared in France, and they were so triumphant that Sada Yakko was even invited to host a garden party at the Élysée Palace—the official residence of the French president. 

Sada Yakko as Musume Dojoji, 1907

Her success continued the entire time she was abroad. Pablo Picasso sketched her; Debussy was inspired by her when composing music. Her arrival in Paris coincided with the Japonisme movement, which she contributed to as an idol and muse for French creatives. Guerlain created a perfume in her honor named “Yacco.”

Sketch of Sada Yakko by Picasso

An interest in kimono accompanied the sweeping wave of Japonisme, and Sada Yacco became the face of it in Paris. An elegant shop called Au Mikado bought the right to use “Yacco” as a brand name. Here, they sold the “Yacco” Guerlain perfume, “Yacco” skin cream, and even “Yacco” candy. But the most popular item was the “Kimono Sada Yacco.” Before the release of Au Mikado’s “Kimono Sada Yacco,” the only women who could afford (Westernized) kimono were the wealthy because of its lavish expense. However, with the introduction of “Kimono Sada Yacco,” ordinary women could afford the look too. The garments sold for a mere 12 to 18 francs. Now everyone could enjoy the exotic lifestyle of Sada Yakko!

An advertisement for “Kimono Sada Yacco”

After returning home to Japan from Paris, Yakko opened her own acting school for women in Tokyo. Applicants were to be aged between 16 and 25, educated to at least the junior high school level, and have two guarantors who were Tokyo homeowners. They were to be educated in history, script writing, traditional and modern acting skills, Japanese and Western dancing, and musical instruments such as the flute, shoulder drum, shamisen, and koto. The course would be two years and wouldn’t cost a yen, but students were expected to perform at the Imperial Theater as part of their practical training. Anyone who left before the two years were up would be charged for the tuition costs that had been waived. Out of 100 applicants, Yakko selected 15 students, and the school opened on September 15, 1908.

Less than a year after Otojiro’s death, perhaps around April 1912, Yakko rekindled her relationship with the married businessman, Momosuke Fukuzawa. They had known each other since childhood and were both in need of some love and support. Although it was not uncommon for married men to seek out mistresses, it was typically done in secret. This, however, was not the case with Yakko and Momosuke. They lived together, traveled together, and flirted with each other so openly that they caused a public scandal. Despite the critics, they both continued to support each other’s careers—Yakko was now starring in acting roles of her own choosing and Momosuke was pursuing several business ventures.

In September 1917, Sadayakko announced her retirement, with her last performance being the lead in the opera, Aida. When Sada retired, she gave up her stage name and geisha name. In 1933, Momosuke was in poor health and they decided that he should move back to his house and wife in Shibuya, and they ended their relationship. They held a solemn ceremony to mark the end—they’d been together for over 20 years. She survived the war, but soon after Japan surrendered, Sada discovered that she had cancer of the liver, which had spread to her throat and tongue. She died on December 7, 1946 at the age of 75.

Sada Yacco was a pioneer of her time, her culture, and her gender. She influenced an entire fashion movement in Paris, and traces of that influence remain today in the form of contemporary Western fashion companies selling “kimono” that resemble more of a duster or long open cardigan. The remaining kimono-inspired fashion of contemporary time is Sada’s cyclicity.

Sada Yakko reading

Sources: “Sada Yacco”; “The Story of Sada Yacco, the Japanese Geisha who Bewitched Europe”; “How Japan’s Most Prominent Geisha Was The Original Beauty Influencer”

Japonisme in Fashion x Cyclicity

Note: I originally wrote this for my company’s blog, ChuMedia Hub.

In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry and his famous black ships arrived in Japan and kicked off the beginning of Western trade. Although Japan was forcefully reopened to the West after having been closed for over 200 years, there is some debate as to whether or not this was ultimately a good thing for Japan. But in this article, we are merely tracing the consequences of its opening and the creation of “Japonisme” in the West.

The French term “Japonisme” emerged to describe the powerful fascination with Japanese art and design that occurred in the West during the late 19th century. Japan was reintroduced to the world, and the world was loving it. The term also refers to the works created by Western artists and designers who were inspired by Japan. While the phenomenon is present in a range of art movements, it is most closely associated with Impressionism, as the Impressionists were influenced by the subject matter, composition, and perspective of Japanese ukiyo-e prints.

Image via artelino

Claude Monet was particularly inspired by Japonisme and had amassed quite the large collection of ukiyo-e prints during his lifetime. I’ve had the privilege to visit his home in Giverny and saw his impressive collection hanging up on the walls of his old home. 

In tune with the popular theme of Japonisme, Monet painted a striking portrait of his first wife Camille in Japanese costume. Camille is wearing a padded and heavily decorated red kimono, standing on a tatami-inspired mat, in front of a wall decorated by Japanese fans. Being a natural brunette, she is shown wearing a blonde wig—perhaps to emphasize the contrast of her as a European woman over the Japanese environment she’s been placed in. The painting evokes a kind of performative appropriation of Japanese culture, rather than an authentic Japanese climate.

La Japonaise by Claude Monet, 1876

One of my favorite painters, Vincent Van Gogh, was also influenced by, and collected, Japanese ukiyo-e prints. In 1887 he produced the work “The Courtesan (after Eisen)”, which was based on the woodcut print of the artist Kesai Eisen. The image had been reproduced on the cover of Paris illustré in 1886. Van Gogh enlarged the figure and used bright colors and bold outlines, in imitation of the ukiyo-e woodcut style. 

The Courtesan (after Eisen) by Vincent Van Gogh, 1887

During the seclusion of the Edo period, the Japanese maintained a strict trade policy with the Dutch through the Dutch East India Company in Nagasaki. In the late sixteenth century, the director of the company and his companions received a “shogun’s gown” as a gift from the shogun. The robe was padded with silk wadding, generous in cut, made of exquisite materials, and very comfortable to wear. The Dutch took these home to Holland, where they became prized as “Japonse rok” (Japanese dressing gowns). They became very popular, appearing in portraits of the time and were even manufactured in other countries.

Image via Huis Van Gjin

Even with the Japonse rok and the opening of Western trade, it was the advent of international expositions in the mid-nineteenth century that thrust Japan into the spotlight. Many Europeans and Americans first saw Japanese artwork and design at the 1862 International Exhibition in London, 1867 in Paris, and 1876 in Philadelphia. Shops selling Japanese wares sprung up in Paris and London during the 1860s and became gathering places for artists and art dealers. Artists began incorporating these “exotic objects” in their paintings, with kimono making its way to the forefront of popularity.

In 1867, the year of the exposition universelle in Paris, Japonisme made its debut in fashion magazines. The October edition of the Journal des demoiselles contained an illustration of clothes labelled “Japanese style”. The June 1 issue of Petit Courrier des dames mentioned “dresses of Japanese silk” purchased by Empress Eugénie, which may have been Japanese kimono. Dresses fashioned from pieces of kimono or made of kimono material began appearing in England and France in the 1860s and 1870s.

Chinese and Japanese Exhibits at 1867 World’s Fair in Paris

Japanese Satsuma Pavilion at the French expo 1867

The most popular item of dress exported to the West was a modified version of the kimono worn as a dressing gown. Kimono had graduated from an exotic Japanese object to a fashionable at-home dress. Western women saw liberation and ease, as well as exoticism, in kimono garments, which consequently saw them adopting them as dressing gowns. Beginning in the 1880s, women’s magazines like Harper’s Bazaar were promoting “Japanese matinees” and dressing gowns of Japanese silk from Liberty and Company of London. It was only until the turn of the century when the word “kimono” came into use.

La parisienne japonaise by Alfred Stevens, 1872

A large contributing factor to the late nineteenth century’s momentum of the kimono was the performing arts. Opera and theater were popular in France, with Japan being quite a popular theme for the stage. In 1885, the Mikado, a performance in which Japanese dress plays a significant role, premiered in London. Through this medium, the knowledge of Japanese kimono gradually spread.

Mikado by Raphael Kirchner, 1900

In 1900, Sada Yacco, the famous Japanese actress, performed in Paris and bewitched the city. Paris was entranced with both her beauty and her skill in wearing kimono, a skill that came naturally to her because of her previous life as a former geisha. She became a sensation and inspiration to many people of influence in the arts—Picasso even sketched her!

Sada Yacco by Pablo Picasso, 1901

Sada Yacco became the star of Paris—the boutique Au Mikado began selling “Kimono Sada Yacco”, and in 1903, every issue of Femina contained an advertisement for them. From around 1905, Le Figaro-Madame often carried advertisements from the House of Babani for “robes japonaises”, Japanese-style garments or dressing gowns. These items were considered the newest addition to an upper-class lady’s peignoir selection and the House of Babani became very successful by selling them.

In 1907, Sada Yacco visited Paris for a second time, and consequently influenced and expanded the role of kimono in the Paris fashion world even further. Her return prompted the emergence of nukiemon (the revealing of the nape of the neck). It soon became the fashionable way to wear kimono. In Paris, kimono were worn as unbelted, sweeping outer robes, similar to the ones seen in ukiyo-e prints. The mikaeri bijin pose (a beautiful woman looking back over her shoulder) became a popular motif found in the pages of fashion magazines.

Beauty Looking Back by Hishikawa Moronobu, 17th century

Charles Frederick Worth, an English couturier and fashion designer, was one of the influential forces in fashion drawn to Japonisme. Beginning in the late 1880s, he started incorporating various elements into his creations through a painterly approach to pattern design, embroidered Japanese motifs, and asymmetrical placement of these motifs. Before Worth, the father of haute couture, asymmetry was rarely found in Western clothes. However, Worth’s fabulous asymmetrical dress changed that.

Beginning in 1890, the Japanese motifs typically favored by the West were chrysanthemums, flowing water, flowers, birds, waves, and various grasses. Chrysanthemums were especially popular, and until the 1920s, they appeared over and over in fashion as a symbol of Japan. Similar, perhaps, to Hokusai’s “Great Wave” iconography, which developed into an emblem of Japan in contemporary times.

Opera Cape by House of Worth, 1899

Ball gown by House of Worth, 1889

Side view of ball gown

Evening dress by House of Worth, 1889

Coat by House of Worth, 1898

Evening dress by House of Worth, 1898-1900

Up until the appearance of Paul Poiret on the Paris fashion scene, Japonisme in fashion was limited to Japanese-style motifs and silk weaving techniques, while the clothes themselves remained Western in shape and form. In 1903, Poiret began to create clothes inspired by the cut, look, and drapery-like quality of a kimono. This inspired a new concept of clothing that emphasized the shoulders, not the waist, and incorporated loosely-cut sleeves and crossed bodices into evening dresses. Evening coats began to swathe the body like comfy cocoons, with their loose-fitting silhouettes and straight cuts. Say goodbye to the corset! Goodbye, corset.

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Madeleine Vionnet, a French fashion designer and couturier, is remembered for liberating  women’s bodies through her clothes (alongside Coco Chanel). Vive la libération! She was inspired by the straight form of Japanese kimono and began creating dresses that were focused on a kimono’s structure in the late 1910s. She abandoned the traditional practice of tailoring body-fitted pieces from numerous and complex pattern pieces and embarked upon a more minimalist approach. She minimized the cutting of fabric and relied on surface ornamentation by manipulating the fabric itself. Vionnet created clothes that flowed over the body from pieces cut along straight lines. She is known for pioneering the idea of the bias cut, which was partly based on the rectangular cut of the kimono. Bias cut fabric stretches as it hangs and clings to the body, draping beautifully, and creating an ethereal rippling effect as the wearer moves.

Embed from Getty Images

Embed from Getty Images

Because pioneering designers like Poiret and Vionnet incorporated the straight cut construction of the kimono into their designs, 1920s fashion was increasingly marked by the popular cylindrical dresses we are familiar with today. These silhouettes have come to define this decade for us through film, television, and other costume-related media. Ideas of volume and three-dimensionality were brought to the forefront of dressmaking, as a freer range of form became all the rage. I was surprised myself to find this connection between the iconic kimono and the iconic “flapper” dresses of the 1920s. Another surprising connection is the scale pattern, or seigaiha (blue ocean waves), pattern that was widely used as a popular motif of the Art Deco school. 

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The influence of Japonisme and other “exotic” cultures began to wane in the late 1930s. American and European designers began to create modern versions of historical Western dress that dominated the fashion scene through the 1950s. The revival of familiar historical styles offered up an escape from the stress of the Great Depression and the impending sense of doom with the growing power of nationalism in Europe. Japonisme was abandoned.

Embed from Getty Images

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Embed from Getty Images

Today, although Japonisme has retired from its previous larger-than-life presence, the influence of Japanese design and aesthetics continues on in the fashion industry. Fashion greats like Issey Miyake, Rei Kawakubo, Yohji Yamamoto, Kenzo Takada, and Hanae Mori still define the fashion landscape today. Whether it be Kawakubo’s consistent defiance of dress stereotypes, or Miyake’s famous pleats collection, it is certain that Japan has more than made its mark on the fashion world. Why else would Kim Kardashian have tried (and failed) to trademark the word “kimono” for herself?

Embed from Getty Images

Embed from Getty Images

Embed from Getty Images

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Embed from Getty Images

Sources: “Japonisme”; “Japonism in Fashion”; Brooklyn Museum “Japonism in Fashion”; “How the Kimono has influenced the World of Fashion”; “Japonism’s Influence in Fashion & Art”; Google Arts & Culture “Japonism in Fashion”; “Japonisme”; “Japonism: A Rich History of Artistic Inspiration”; “How Japanese Art Influenced and Inspired European Impressionist Artists”; “7 Things you Need to Know about Japonisme”

Japanese Beauty Standards x Cyclicity

Note: I originally wrote this for my company’s blog, ChuMedia Hub.

What comes to mind when you first think of Japanese beauty? A classic image of a woman with black hair, white skin, and red lips? The traditional color palette—black, white, and red. 

The Japanese have an old saying, “a fair complexion hides seven flaws,” which has remained relevant throughout their history, all the way up to today. The same beauty standards from the past find themselves still relevant today, but with a contemporary twist. Whitening products line beauty stores in Japan, with the promise of lightening and whitening one’s skin. I’ve noticed that big global brands like Chanel tote whitening products for their Asian market as well. When I went to purchase more perfume at a Chanel boutique, I was gifted samples from their whitening product line. I ended up giving them to a Japanese friend of mine. I have sensitive skin and I’m not sure how my skin would react to products like that. I also don’t care about having white skin; my skin is already pretty white.

While many traditional Japanese beauty standards have withstood the test of time, there are also those that didn’t. Let’s take a look.

White Skin

White skin is a Japanese beauty standard that has remained prevalent throughout most of Japan’s history and continues to dominate the landscape today. During the Nara period (710-794), women would apply a white powder to their face called oshiroi, which continued into the Heian period (794-1185) as a symbol of beauty. However, only noble Heian women had access to cosmetics, so anyone who was not an aristocrat was excluded from this practice and status symbol. References to the striking beauty of white skin can be found in the diary of Lady Murasaki and the Tale of Genji.

During the Edo period (1603-1868), the culture of white skin was extended to commoners, but an emphasis was put on a more natural look. A beauty manual titled “Miyako fūzoku kewaiden” (A Handbook of Cosmetics in the Capital) was published in 1813 and remained the go-to reference item on beauty through the next century. This handbook contained a range of skincare techniques for making the skin beautiful and white. These techniques ranged from facial cleansing, herbal treatments for acne, facial packs made from lead oxide, rice bran as a facial exfoliant, and even the use of collagen as a facial pack. 

The natural look that women in the Edo period tried to achieve was more of a polished and translucent white skin tone. Every day, a great deal of time was spent on applying makeup and cosmetics that accentuated the natural beauty of the skin. The handbook described how oshiroi should be repeatedly applied and removed by rubbing the cheeks with a towel to make the skin resemble porcelain. Some women would even apply white powder to their ears and neck as well, intentionally leaving some areas untouched to create a contrast between the white makeup and naked, natural skin.

Wearing makeup was considered good etiquette and women were expected to be made up from the early morning until late at night, including bath time. Applying makeup was considered a private act, not to be seen by others. This may be the reason why it is rare to see Japanese women putting on makeup in public, contrary to their Western counterparts.

As Westernization hit Japan via the Meiji era (1868-1912) and the country was thrust into the modern world, heavily powdered white faces fell out of fashion. Western cultural influences were introduced and swept the nation clean. However, kabuki performers and geisha still wear this traditional white makeup today, so it has not gone extinct.

Image by Nicole Ene via Pixabay

Blackened Teeth

Ohaguro, the traditional blackening of the teeth, can be traced as far back as the Kofun period (300-538). However, it was the Heian period that saw it become more widespread amongst the aristocracy and introduced as a coming of age ritual among girls and boys. During the Edo period, ohaguro became common practice amongst married women, unmarried women over 18, geisha, and courtesans. In order to blacken the teeth, a dye made out of iron filings, vinegar, and plant tannins was applied to the teeth almost every day.

But why did women dye their teeth black? It may seem strange hearing about this today, but back then it was thought to complement the white makeup women wore. Simultaneously, it acted as a way to conceal bad and yellow teeth, especially since a white face inevitably made the teeth appear yellower. Ohaguro was actually good for the teeth as well—the mixture helped to protect against cavities, tooth decay, and other dental conditions.

Black was also an important color in the Japanese expression of beauty and elegance. It was associated with a Japanese woman’s distinctive black hair and stained black teeth. Teeth that were black as night was a popular beauty ideal until the 19th century. In 1870, the practice of blackened teeth was banned among the nobility, but continued to be followed by other non-noble social classes until the early Shōwa period. 

Many Westerners who visited Japan saw ohaguro as a repugnant Japanese custom that disfigured women by making them intentionally unattractive. It didn’t follow the standard Western beauty practices, so of course they didn’t understand.

Image via The Irish News

Floor-Length Hair

Hair was the most important feature of a woman’s physical beauty during the Heian period. As long as it was long and glossy, she was considered beautiful. The longer the hair, the more beautiful the woman. This period saw Japanese beauty standards break free from the influence of China to create a more distinct aesthetic of their own. This included floor-length hair, white powdered faces, and the blackening of teeth. It is believed that this long, flowing hair trend was a form of rebellion against the shorter hairstyles and buns that were popular in China at that time. 

The noble women of the court would have their hair parted down the center, falling straight down their back; barely any styling technique was used. Aside from keeping hair long, it was just as important to take good care of it. Rice water, camellia oil, and sanekazura extract were used to keep hair glossy. Washing and combing the hair was an all-day affair that required the attention of many servants. The longest hair ever recorded was around seven meters. No wonder so many attendants were needed!

Image via Life in Heian Japan and Medieval Europe

Shaved Eyebrows

Shaved eyebrows was another Japanese beauty standard that was practiced throughout history. Starting in the Nara period and ending in the Edo period, women would engage in hikimayu—a makeup practice that involved removing one’s natural eyebrows and then painting them back on. This practice was closely associated with oshiroi because removing natural eyebrows made it easier to apply the white powder.

In the Nara period, women would paint the brows in arc shapes. In the Heian period, eyebrows were painted high up on the forehead as ovals or smudges. Because of the sleek and long hairstyle of that period, the forehead appeared too prominent. Thus, the eyebrows were repainted higher up on the forehead to help balance out the face.

During the Edo period, hikimayu was only done by married women after the birth of their first child. They would then either repaint the brows at the original location or leave them bare. With the aggressive entrance of Western influence thrust upon Japan during the Meiji era, hikimayu began to die out. It can be seen today most commonly through the Heian-style masks used in Noh theater.

Nara period eyebrows

Image via grape

Heian period eyebrows

Caption: Noh Mask of a Young Woman by Ogura Sōei. 

Image via artsmia.org

Red Rosebud Lips

Everybody loves a red lip, and the Japanese are no exception. However, it was small lips that were traditionally considered a standard of beauty. Japanese women would apply beni to their lips, a red color pigment made from safflower, and paint inside their lip line to make their pucker look like a bright red flower bud. 

During the Edo period, a new trend was taking shape amongst the ladies of Osaka, Kyoto, and Edo. Women were dressing up to go out to kabuki performances, nature-viewing parties, or other events, and began wearing the clothes of kabuki actors and beautiful courtesans. Flowery, eye-catching styles became fashionable. Rouge and red lipstick were used to accent ears, lips, and the outer corners of the eyes. Red, white, and black were the only colors used in makeup during that time and can still be seen today in the faces of geisha and kabuki actors. Yet, the Meiji era again saw the disappearance of the red rosebud lip trend and introduced a full palette of makeup hues to the vanities of Japanese women.

Today, the best models for the small rosebud lips of the past are geisha.

Image via Peter Brown’s Australian & Asian Palaeoanthropology

Western Influences and 20th Century Practices

The beginning of the 20th century saw an emergence of quick application and convenient makeup practices. This was in direct correlation with the advancement of women in both society and the workplace. Foundation, face powder, and lipsticks were being sold in a wider variety of hues, while emulsions and skincare products started appearing on the market as the Western industry’s influence began to permeate the Japanese market. The end of World War II especially saw a heavy influence on Japanese aesthetics with the influx of the American mass media market.

The postwar period and the 1960s saw Western styles of makeup gaining popularity—eye shadow, oil-based foundations, mascara, false eyelashes, and other products began lining Japan’s shop shelves. The spread of color televisions in the 1960s were a surprising influence on this trend—the films shown at movie houses usually had a pinkish overtone, which saw a growth in popularity of pink makeup. 

The 1970s and 1980s, however, marked a move away from Western culture as more women began proudly embracing their identity as Japanese. Yamaguchi Sayoko, a Japanese model who was the first Asian model to grace the Parisian runways, served as an inspiration of Japanese beauty as an international icon. While her black straight hair and almond-shaped eyes inspired a kind of orientalism in the West, it also helped inspire young women back home. During the 1960s, almost 50% of models used in Japanese advertising were non-Asian—even Shiseido used exclusively half-Japanese models until 1973, when they signed Yamaguchi. With her exploding popularity in the fashion and beauty world, Yamaguchi helped to build a new appreciation of modern Japanese beauty.

Image via Wooly

Contemporary Practices

Although the heavy face powder look of Japan’s previous eras has passed, beautiful white skin is still a crucial beauty standard today. A great importance is placed on skincare and whitening products, while the leading cosmetology advancements in scar tissue reduction techniques can be directly linked to the classic Japanese ideal of unblemished skin.

Japan is now one of the worldwide market leaders for beauty products and cosmetics. Japanese products are highly coveted by individuals all over the world, as seen by the sweeping J-beauty trend. Sheet masks, serums, and skincare galore! People are rushing for the chance to unlock the secrets to achieving beautiful Japanese skin.

Image via Honeycombers

Sources: “Cultural History of Cosmetics”; “Ancient Japanese Beauty Standards You Probably Didn’t Know”; “The Fair Face of Japanese Beauty”; “Red Lips, White Face: The Cultural History of Japanese Beauty”; “A Japanese Beauty Tip Book Published 200 Years Ago”; “The Japanese Model Who Transformed Fashion’s Beauty Norms”.

Sheet Masks & Skincare x Cyclicity

Note: I originally wrote this for my company’s blog, ChuMedia Hub.

I take my skincare seriously, but I wish I had started in my early 20s. I still have nice skin in my late 20s, but I do wonder if it would be even nicer had I begun my routine earlier in life. 

Ah, well. We can’t regret the past … 

I typically have a 9- or 10-step skincare program that I do twice a day. Mornings are the 10-step routine, while bedtime is my 9-step routine. (The difference? Sunscreen!)

My morning skincare routine typically consists of:

  1. Cleanser
  2. Essence
  3. Toner
  4. Japanese sheet mask
  5. Serum
  6. Eye cream
  7. Daytime moisturizer
  8. Oil
  9. Glossier oil-serum hybrid
  10. Sunscreen

My bedtime skincare routine typically consists of:

  1. Cleanser
  2. Essence
  3. Toner
  4. Korean sheet mask
  5. Serum
  6. Eye cream
  7. Nighttime moisturizer
  8. Oil
  9. Glossier oil-serum hybrid

There’s a few differences to note between my two routines: sunscreen, moisturizers, and sheet masks. The addition of sunscreen for my morning routine is obvious; I will be exposed to the sun so I need to protect my skin from its harmful rays. The daytime moisturizer I use is Tatcha’s “Water Cream”, which is a lighter, oil-free cream that delivers a refreshing burst of hydration when applied to the skin. At night, I use a thicker, heavier moisturizer from varying brands. Recently, I ordered a watermelon sleeping mask that I’m very excited to try once it arrives.

In terms of sheet masks, I’ve noticed that Korean ones are more saturated than Japanese ones and usually take about 20 minutes; Japanese ones aren’t always as wet and take about 10 minutes. While I don’t mind a wetter face at night, having one in the morning creates more problems for me when applying makeup and putting on my (non-skincare) face mask (stay safe out there!).

so much Innisfree
My first purchase of Innisfree masks—always buy in bulk!

Clear Turn just purchased
Buying Japanese Clear Turn masks in bulk.

Pro tip: I keep a jade roller in the refrigerator and use it when applying a mask. Once I’ve put the mask on, I roll it all over my face to make sure it is secure. Keeping it in the fridge makes for a relaxing, calming, cold ritual that helps to wake me up while working my skin.

jade roller
My handy jade roller.

Here’s a list of the different sheet masks I use:

Japanese Masks

Lululun Blue Hydrating

I like how stretchy the fabric is, especially because it doesn’t fit my face that well. Lululun is such a hit in Japan because it’s made more for smaller Asian faces and, while I always thought I had a Japanese-sized head, I guess my European side got in the way of its “petiteness”. I did notice that the more saturated masks were at the bottom of the box though, thanks to that ever-present force we call gravity. Because of that, it did make some of the top masks feel a bit dry. No thanks!

This mask is marketed as having extra moisturizer, which promotes softer, more hydrated skin. It is designed for daily use, and is supposed to increase the skin’s ability to retain moisture and enhance the absorption of serum.

Lulun blue 2
I’m blue da ba dee da ba daa.

lululun blue
A big, beautiful box of blue.

Kose Clear Turn Super Rich Moisturizing Mask EX (Gold Bag)

First, I do not like how you have to punch out the eyeholes and they remain there, hanging below your eyes. What’s the point? Is it the eye mask? The material of the mask is thick though, and I’m able to pull and stretch it how I need. This is also the only mask I’ve used where I’ve been able to talk a bit, due to the large holes in it for your mouth, nose, etc. The scent is light and nice. It’s perfectly fine for the morning but I do think I prefer Lululun.

This mask is marketed as a super concentrated moisturizing mask that leads to soft skin and prevents dry fine lines and pores. Its highly penetrating essence is designed to deliver a deep balance of moisture and oil to the skin. It works as an all-in-one lotion, astringent, beauty serum, milky lotion, cream, face pack, and eye mask.

IMG_0375
Those are some large eye holes.

Kose Clear Turn Japanese Rice Sheet Masks (Blue Bag)

I was expecting these masks to be similar to the moisturizing ones, but I’ve been pleasantly surprised so far. These masks are a lot more saturated, unlike the moisturizing ones. There isn’t much of a scent but the mask feels gentle and calming. It works well for my morning routine. Between this mask and the Lululun one, I think I’m leaning more towards this one as my morning preference.

This mask is marketed as an all-in-one face mask containing premium rice extract that hydrates dry skin and minimizes visible pores. It works as a toner, serum, emulsion, cream, face pack, and eye mask.

IMG_0376
Clear Turn Gold and Blue Masks.

Kose Clear Turn Royal Jelly Mask (Sakura)

I managed to get my hands on these during the vibrant sakura season. The scent of these masks is sweet and nice, but it’s strong. I reckon it could give me a headache if I was feeling sensitive at the time of doing it. The texture is interesting because it’s jelly, while also being a sheet mask.

This mask is marketed for people who want more moisture than usual. It has three times the highly-concentrated hyaluronic acid and provides ample hydration for both soft and radiant skin and fewer fine lines from dryness. It works as an all-in-one lotion, emulsion, serum, cream, eye mask, and face mask.

Clear Turn Royal Jelly
Sakura delight!

Clear Turn Royal Jelly sheet mask
Can you spot the jelly?

Clear Turn Themed Masks

These masks are purely for fun, with a touch of skincare on the side. They’re usually more expensive because of their themed nature and function more as souvenirs than serious skincare. I usually do these masks with my boyfriend as a fun bonding experience. But I think he’s over it now because he never wants to do them anymore. Oh well, more for me!

IMG_0377
Domesticated animals for a domestic lifestyle.

IMG_0378
Kabuki sheet masks.

Keana Rice Mask

I’ve been wanting to try this mask for a while now but I’m not sure that it’s really done anything for me. It didn’t have any type of strong scent, which can be a good or bad thing (depending on your preference), but my face didn’t feel exceptional after. It was fully saturated, which I appreciated. This mask fit my face more like the Lululun masks—it was a tad too small for my face. The eye holes aren’t far apart enough to completely fit my face. This is where I have a sizing problem. 

This mask is marketed as a rice-derived skin care serum designed for dry skin with prominent pores. The rice serum is supposed to help with moisturizing, elasticity, adjusting skin condition, and adjusting skin texture.

keana rice
Rice rice baby.

keana rice mask
Peep the eye holes.

Momo Puri Milk Jelly Mask

This mask smelled AMAZING. I loved it. It also had a really nice texture and my skin felt really lovely after. I did it at night and in the morning my face was so smooth, soft, and velvety. I would definitely recommend it. I did have the same eye hole problem with this mask as some of the other Japanese masks I’ve tried. I reckon there’s a different fit for Japanese masks versus Korean ones.

This mask is marketed as an updated, more moisturizing version of their original jelly mask, which makes it ideal for drier skin types. It is supposed to help create soft and hydrated skin, improve skin elasticity, moisturize the skin while maintaining skin barrier function, and tighten pores.

momo puri
Sweet, juicy, and delectable. I want skin like that!

momo puri mask
Can you see the milk jelly texture?

Pure Smile Snail Essence Mask

I was hesitant at first to try this mask because of the snail essence, but one of my friends here recommended it, so I decided to try it. I was happily surprised that it did not smell like what I imagine snail might smell like. It felt like a normal mask and I was happy with it. My skin did feel nice the next day, thank you snails! 

This mask is marketed as an anti-aging mask that reduces fine lines and wrinkles while also delivering antioxidants to the skin to create a smooth, hydrated, and moisturized complexion. The snail essence is supposed to help repair damaged skin from the sun, acne scars, and hyperpigmentation.

pure smile snail
Do not fear the snail. The snail is your friend.

Clear Turn Babyish

I find the packaging for this mask a little strange, but I get it. Why is there a white baby on it though? This mask was pretty underwhelming as well. It wasn’t very saturated and it didn’t make me feel much. I did it at night and my skin did feel nice in the morning, though. I”m not sure if I would recommend it or not. I’m up in the air about it. It also didn’t fit my face well. Maybe the idea of having a baby’s skin as an adult doesn’t sit well with me.

This mask is marketed for plump, baby-like skin. It is formulated for people in their 20s and is gentle on the skin. It is supposed to help with restoring skin and acne problems while delivering intense moisture to create baby-like skin.

babyish mask
The baby is cute, I’ll admit it.

babyish sheet mask
Just another Japanese mask that doesn’t like my face shape.

Korean Masks

IMG_0379
Some of the masks in my Korean sheet mask collection!

innisfree and roots
Innisfree is life, and what is life without Innisfree?

Innisfree

Oh man, do I love Innisfree. What a gloriousand affordable—skincare brand. I’ve tried almost all of their masks and I can’t even choose a favorite. Whenever I go to stock up, I always have to get a large variety. I prefer their “My Real Squeeze” masks, which come in three different levels of hydration: water, essence, and cream. The water base is light and fresh, the essence base is deeply hydrating, and the cream base is intensely nourishing. I’ve also used their “Skin Clinic” ones, which are my least favorite because they have a more clinical smell to them that I don’t find pleasant. They’ve also released a new “Root Vegetable” line that leaves your skin feeling great and only has a subtle scent. All of their masks are so saturated that they drip down my neck while applying them and there’s always a lot left behind in the packet! I save the packet for the next day so I can use it in the morning again. Waste not, want not. They’re even environmentally-friendly! (I’m looking at you, compost). These are my favorite Korean sheet masks.

Innisfree store
Masks, masks, masks galore at Innisfree!

Mally and Innisfree masks
Excited about my new masks! This time I purchased some of the new “Root Vegetable” ones!

innisfree acai berry mask
A cream-based Acai Berry mask that smells berry berry good!

Mediheal

I’ve heard that this brand is one of the most popular in Korea. It was recommended to me by my Japanese friend who loves Korean skincare. (Coincidentally, she is also the one who introduced me to Innisfree. Shout out, Aya!) I like their masks as well, and I also always purchase a variety. Sometimes my skin needs extra moisture, sometimes it needs a tea tree oil treatment. I usually go for the different kinds of moisturizing, hydrating, and tea tree oil masks. These are super saturated as well but don’t feel as “natural” and “organic” as the Innisfree ones. I’d highly recommend them.

IMG_0381
Mediheal masks have “Mediheal” written all over them and once the words appear, the mask is ready to be removed. (You can see a bit of writing near my eye on the left).

The Solution

This one smells great! But I am not a fan of the plastic sheet that the sheet mask itself is attached to. I prefer the delivery of Innisfree because I sometimes struggle with removing the sheet mask from the accompanying plastic sheet. What’s the point of the plastic? I certainly don’t know, but I’m sure there’s a reason. Other than the plastic though, I do like this mask as well. I consider it equal to the Mediheal ones.

the solution
A simple “solution” to all of your skin’s needs.

the solution sheet mask
My satisfying and saturated skin.

Dr. Jart Shake & Shot

Perhaps one of the more unique face masks I’ve ever encountered, this Dr. Jart mask arrives in a most curious packaging. Dr. Jart has a popular rubber sheet mask that I’m also including in this list, and I’m guessing that this is the new peel-off version of it. The lid makes up a creepy baby’s face with the spatula’s end protruding from its mouth. You open it up and there are two little packages that you combine to create the mask. You shake the ingredients up in the bottle like a cocktail shaker and then have 2-3 minutes to apply the entire mask to your face with the spatula. I had a few problems with this mask. The mask kept dripping down my face and I needed to grab a paper towel to catch the droplets while I sat on my bed waiting for it to dry. When the time came to peel it off, a lot of the mask found itself stuck in my eyebrows and hairline. My face also didn’t feel very special once removing it. While I’d recommend using this mask once for the novelty, I’m not planning on using it again.

Dr Jart Shake_Shot1
Dr. Jart Shake & Shot. It looks like a drink you’d find in a combini.

Dr Jart Shake_Shot2
The creepy rubber baby face!

Dr Jart Shake_Shot3
Shake baby shake.

Dr Jart Shake_Shot4
Drip, drip, drip. The results of the rubber peel-off mask. Is Madame Toussaud ready for me yet?

Dr. Jart Sheet Mask

This mask reminded me of the Mediheal and the Solution masks. It had a pleasant, light smell and was deeply saturated. It did have the misfortune of containing one of those plastic sheets I so abhor, thus putting Mediheal at the top. This was definitely my favorite Dr. Jart mask, but because it’s not readily available in Japan like the others, I probably won’t be purchasing it again. I would recommend it though, because I had no issues with it and quite enjoyed my hydrating experience.

Dr Jart Vital Hydra
Let’s get hydrated.

Dr Jart Vital Hydra instructions
Note the “genuine product” guarantee in the top right corner. Dr. Jart ain’t messing around.

Dr Jart Vital Hydra plastic sheet
The pesky piece of plastic! My greatest enemy!

Dr Jart Vital Hydra sheet mask
A very hydrated Mally.

Dr. Jart Rubber Sheet Mask

Oh man, was I disappointed in this one. I was very excited to try this mask because of all the hype. I’ve seen these masks before on social media and was always intriguedwell, the intrigue has gone and been replaced with disappointment. First, it comes with an ampoule (a supercharged serum) that you apply evenly to your face before putting the mask on. That was weird to me, especially because the mask itself didn’t feel like it had anything on it. Maybe it did, maybe it didn’t. I’m not sure. All I know is that applying the mask was fun at first but very quickly became problematic. The mask is divided into two partsone for the top half of the face and one for the bottom. The chin section would not stay in place and would flop openly at the bottom, regardless of my attempts to make it adhere to my skin. At one point, the mask slipped down my face so much that I had to completely readjust the entire thing. But here’s the real kickerthis mask stays on your face for 30-40 minutes. That is the longest time I’ve ever seen on a mask before. Save yourself the money, time, and trouble, and choose a different mask. Or do choose it and try it out for the novelty.

dr jart rubber mask
Just the rubber baby face I was looking for.

dr jart rubber mask instructions
Perhaps one of the most high maintenance masks I’ve ever used.

dr jart rubber sheet mask
At least I look cool … right?!

Thank you for coming with me on this journey. I trust you’ve enjoyed yourselves and have hopefully learned something new! If not, I hope that you’ve enjoyed the many faces of my sheet mask selfies. And don’t forget to try out Innisfree!

Sunnies x Cyclicity

“Sunglasses are like eye shadow: They make everything look younger and pretty.” – Karl Lagerfeld

“Sunglasses” by Ramesh ram. CC BY 2.0

I love sunglasses; they create a unique barrier from the sun and have the power to transform someone. They provide me with a way to pull together an outfit, a way to hide from the public, and a way of protecting my eyes from the sun. The only thing I don’t like about sunglasses is how I have to put my contacts in, in order to put my sunglasses on – it’s a hassle, trust me. But it’s always worth it.

The origins of sunglasses can be traced back to prehistoric times – when the Inuit peoples wore flattened walrus ivory glasses and peered through narrow slits to block the harmful reflected rays of the sun.

“Inuit sunglasses” by Michael Clark. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

 

Meanwhile, our ancient ancestors in China and Rome were also rocking the earliest forms of sunglasses. The Roman Emperor Nero would watch gladiator fights through polished light green emerald gems held up to his eyes. It is possible that he used the emerald because its green color filtered the sunlight.

“Emerald” by the paleobear. CC BY 2.0

 

In 12th century China, sunglasses were made out of lenses that were flat panes of smoky quartz. Although they offered no corrective powers nor protection from harmful UV rays, they did protect the eyes from glare. These sunglasses were used by the Judges in the Courts of China to hide their facial expressions when interrogating witnesses.

The beginning of sunglasses as we know them are the work of an English optician named James Ayscough. In the mid 18th century, Ayscough began experimenting with blue and green tinted lenses as a means to correct optical impairments.

“Eyeglasses”, courtesy of Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial.

 

In the 19th century, tinted sunglasses were a commonly prescribed item for syphilis. One of the symptoms of the disease was sensitivity to light.

The early 20th century saw the use of sunglasses become much more widespread, especially among movie stars. It is believed that Hollywood stars wore sunglasses as both a way to avoid recognition by fans and to conceal their red eyes which resulted from the powerful arc lamps used on set at that time.

Inexpensive mass production of sunglasses started in 1929 with the man Sam Foster. He sold his sunglasses, on the beaches of Atlantic City under the name Foster Grant from a Woolworth on the Boardwalk, which were made to protect people’s eyes from the sun.

In 1937, Ray Ban created anti-glare aviator style sunglasses using polarization. These Ray-Ban Aviators played a significant role during WWII and soon became popular with celebrities and the public after being used by pilots in wartime.

“World War II aviator”, by Alex Lindeman. CC BY 2.0

 

The cat eye style reigned over the 50s, most notably with Marilyn Monroe and Audrey Hepburn. The trend became a part of one of Hepburn’s most iconic looks: as Holly Golightly from Breakfast at Tiffany’s.

“Audrey Hepburn, ‘Breakfast at Tiffany’s’ (1961)”, by Classic Film. CC BY-NC 2.0

 

The 60s saw huge, bug-eyed sunglasses in both circle and square shapes emerge with the tie-dye, flared jeans, and mod patterns of that decade. Jackie O. was a big fan.

“Sunglasses”, by RV1864. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

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Too fabulous for you.

A post shared by Jackie Kennedy (@jackiekennedyonassis) on

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Those sunglasses really work well on her.

A post shared by Jackie Kennedy (@jackiekennedyonassis) on

 

The laid-back flower child vibe of the 70s produced all different kinds of sunglasses that were in style – big, plastic, wire, and even rimless frames.

“1971 Summer Fashion Ad, Cool-Ray Polaroid Sunglasses with Pretty Brunette, ‘Glare-Killers’”, by Classic Film. CC BY-NC 2.0

 

The eccentricity of the 80s allowed men and women to get even louder with their style and accompanying sunglasses in colorful, plastic frames.

“Firm those horrible buttocks while dancing on hits such as: ‘Baby i’m not sleeping with your cellulite tonight’ and ‘Shake that big booty’!”, by deleted.scenes. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

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🕶🏜

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The 90s were filled with tiny, wired frames seen on celebrities like Britney Spears and the stars of 90s sitcoms like Friends.

 

This past summer the big sunglasses trend was focused on color reflecting lenses, like the pair my friend Angela is wearing below.

Sunglasses now come in so many different shapes, styles, and colors that it is no wonder it has become a multi-million dollar industry! While the trends are always fun to follow, I much prefer a solid pair of sunglasses that complements my features and protects my eyes from the sun. A good pair of sunnies always has a transformative effect!

 

Sources: Cally Blackman, 100 Years of Fashion (2012); “Fashion Archives: A Look at the History of Sunglasses”; “Origins and History of Sunglasses”; “The Dark History of Sunglasses”; “Stay Shady: The History of Sunglasses”; “The Evolution of Sunglasses”.

 

Check out some of my favorite sunglasses looks below!

Photo credit: @somedudenameddevs

Photo credit: Lauren Khalfayan

Jumpsuits & Rompers x Cyclicity

Jumpsuits and rompers (or “playsuits” as the British call them) are a trend that I love to “romp” around in! (Puns for life) Although very similar in style, each has its own individual history – I’ve just decided to cover them together this week because they’ve become so synonymous with each other in contemporary times.

I love me a good jumpsuit – something about the whole look really appeals to me. I actually prefer them to rompers, but I think that has to do more with my preference of wearing pants over shorts. I believe that a good jumpsuit can make anyone look classy, stylish, and elegant, as well as provide a great and more noticeable alternative to a nice dress.

 

The jumpsuit, an all-in-one body garment, was invented in the early 20th century. It was originally used in the military for pilots and parachutists. During World War II, women started wearing utilitarian jumpsuits to work in the factories. In the US, women often wore the now-iconic look of jumpsuits with their hair pinned up under a scarf tied about their head into a turban. Does this remind you of anything? Perhaps Rosie the Riveter? Rosie became a symbol of patriotism used to encourage women to take on wartime jobs.

“Rosie-the-riveter” by SBT4NOW. CC BY-SA 2.0

 

In Britain, the “siren suit” was also born out of wartime necessity. Siren suits (to be worn when the sirens sounded) were one-piece jumpsuits that could be worn over pajamas or nightgowns and zipped up the front. They provided protection from the dirt of the wartime air raid shelters during the Blitz. They also solved the problems of warmth and modesty that were encountered during nighttime air raids. The women’s version was available with fashionable features such as bell bottomed legs, puffed shoulders, and a fitted hood. Pockets were included as well!

“Siren suit: women’s civilian”, courtesy of the IWM.

 

After the war ended, jumpsuits lost popularity until the ‘60s and ‘70s when designers seized the opportunity to add a luxe spin to the one-piece. Floral and paisley designs became especially popular with the hippies of this era. Eventually, like most trends, jumpsuits went out of style in the ‘80s but have now come back in full swing – looks like jumpsuits have become quite cyclical, eh?

“1967 Beauty Ad, Posner’s Bergamot Instant Hair Conditioner, with Floral Jumpsuit Offer” by Classic Film. CC BY-NC 2.0

“1970 Fashion Ad, Vicky Vaughn Jumpsuits & Pantdressing Fashions, Models at Seashore” by Classic Film. CC BY-NC 2.0

 

Rompers/playsuits were originally introduced for children’s wear in the early 20th century. They were popular as playwear for younger children because their light and loose fitting construction made them ideal for movement.

“Romper” by cascade_lily. CC BY 2.0

 

Meanwhile, teens and grown women in the 1940s and ‘50s began wearing playsuits outdoors – either at the beach, as sportswear, or just as casualwear. They continued their popularity through the ‘60s, ‘70s, and ‘80s and then resurged again in the late 2000’s. I guess the ‘90s weren’t a fan of the one-piece. Their popularity has not seemed to wane since their re-emergence, as the romper/playsuit has a similar cyclicity to the jumpsuit.

“Un futuro incierto…” by Ubé. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

“1960s playsuit” by Bess Georgette. CC BY-SA 2.0

 

There’s one last thing I’d like to leave you with, my dear readers, and that is this: the “male romper” is stupid and it is not a thing.

Sources: Jonathan Walford, Forties Fashion: From Siren Suits to the New Look (2008); Alex Newman and Zakee Shariff, Fashion A-Z: An Illustrated Dictionary (2009); Akiko Fukai (ed.), Fashion: A History from the 18th to the 20th Century (2015); Imperial War Museum; “Stockings & siren suits: 1930s women’s fashion”; “Your Cute, Summer Onesie Has An Apocalyptic Origin Story”; “1940s Playsuits, Rompers & Shorts – History and Photos”; “Jumpsuits & Rompers: A Brief History”.

Check out some of my favorite jumpsuit and romper looks below!

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The Spirit of Aloha x Cyclicity

“A-L-O-H-A

There is one thing in life that never changes – the true meaning of ‘Aloha’. It is a way of life – it is an attitude – it is how you choose to live your life – it is given freely without any expectations. There are no entitlements – ‘Aloha’ is given like the ‘Grace of God’

The ‘Aloha Shirt’ symbolizes this lifestyle that is still alive in Hawai‘i and across the globe in the people who have experienced the kindness and respect of ‘Aloha’.

We want everyone who puts on a Hawaiian shirt to one day feel the footprint of ‘Aloha’ upon them so that they can have a true appreciation of Hawai‘i’s beauty inside and out.” -Craig Hara, President, Mr. Hawai‘i Inc.; Brand: Go Barefoot

As many of you know, my family is very Hawaiian. My parents grew up there and Hawaiian blood runs through the veins of my dad’s side of the family (where did you think my lips came from?) – so it should come as no surprise that Aloha shirts have been an integral part of our lives since Day 1.

“Hula Maidens 1950s” by 1950sUnlimited. CC BY 2.0

Although they are typically known as a man’s buttoned, short-sleeved, collared shirt, characterized by brightly printed Hawaiian “tropical” designs, that never deterred me from stealing one of my dad’s. Usually I either tie it at the waist or just let it hang unbuttoned at my sides. I don’t care what society says – I love aloha shirts and defying gender stereotypes!

 

Aloha shirts have been a long tradition in Hawai‘i, taking their origins from several different influences. The cut and style came from the sturdy and traditional short-sleeve button-front work shirt worn by sugar cane and pineapple plantation workers. The colorful prints were designed for tourists by an artistic group of people during the time when Hawai‘i was emerging as a popular tropical island paradise. Renowned aloha shirt designer John “Keoni” Meigs believed that aloha shirts put Hawai‘i on the map. For inspiration, Keoni and the other designers of this age turned to designs of beaches, sunsets, palm trees, hula girls, flowers, and the rain forests of Hawai‘i.

“Hawaii Dream Vacation 1958” by 1950sUnlimited. CC BY 2.0

“Matson Lines Cruise Ad, c1956” by alsis35. CC BY-NC 2.0

“Pan American Airlines Ad, 1952” by alsis35. CC BY-NC 2.0

 

First appearing in the 1930s, the earliest shirts became mementos for visitors to the islands. These Hawaiian souvenirs allowed them to bring back a piece of aloha home with them. As tourism in Hawai‘i grew, so did the popularity of the aloha shirts, and soon, what began as a business for the growing tourist trade became something much more kama‘āina (local). The 1950s saw dress codes for business people in Hawai‘i begin to relax; the introduction of Aloha Fridays and then Aloha Week helped to bring the aloha shirt into the workplace. They also became popular among locals as common casualwear. Although aloha shirts still flourish today, the period from the 1930s to the 1950s is known as the Golden Age of aloha shirts.

“1955 Matson Cruise Lines 1” by 1950sUnlimited. CC BY 2.0

“1954 Hawaii Visitor Bureau” by 1950sUnlimited. CC BY 2.0

“1954 Matson Lines Cruise” 1950sUnlimited. CC BY 2.0

 

In the 1960s, designs began to move away from the bright images of the Golden Age as a new breed of designers began to emerge and taste began to evolve. The ‘60s saw the creation of a new reverse print aloha shirt that quickly became all the rage. The fabric of these shirts was turned inside out to mute the bright colors and create the reverse print effect. My brother, Keoni, (who coincidentally shares his name with the Golden Age designer) can be seen wearing one of these reverse print aloha shirts below.

 

Over the years, radio, movies, television, newspapers, celebrities, and public figures promoted the Hawaiian islands to people on the mainland through widely publicized images of the Hawaiian lifestyle. Movies were enormously effective in the promotion of aloha shirts with figures like Elvis Presley, who starred in the 1961 musical comedy Blue Hawai‘i. In this movie, Elvis played the ‘ukelele and taught “hot broads” (classic 1960s objectification and overt sexualization of women) how to surf. My dad even has an Elvis Presley aloha shirt, which you can see on my friend Dylan below.

“Elvis in Blue Hawaii” by Lionel Valdellon. CC BY-NC 2.0

 

Along with the design, colors, and fabric, the aloha shirt was also valued for its label and type of button. During the Golden Age, Hawaiian labels were considered miniature pieces of art and added a romantic element to the garments. Featuring images of surfers, Diamond Head, palm trees, outrigger canoes, and people, these finely woven labels were also important in establishing a company’s reputation and prestige.

 

Years before commercial fabrication, the art of coconut button making was a home craft in Hawai‘i and ended up on home-sewn aloha shirts. They were the perfect natural material for making buttons, as they were available in abundance and hard enough to not crack. During the Golden Age, coconut buttons began to catch tourists’ interest and began to pop up in advertisements around Honolulu. A small coconut-button factory on O’ahu produced the standard round buttons as well as novelty Hawaiian shapes like fish, palm leaves, and pineapples. They were sold on souvenir cards and advertised as hand carved and polished by the natives of the islands. (What an authentic experience for the mainlanders!) Today, nothing beats the original coconut buttons on vintage aloha shirts. Ranging from dark brown to an almost blond color, they provide a lovely contrast with Hawaiian prints.

 

Aloha shirts have always played an important part in my family life. My dad and brother can frequently be found in them, proudly displaying their Hawaiian culture and spirit of aloha. When I was in college, I stole a soft red one of my dad’s that I would wear while studying or writing papers. It was a nice way for me to feel close to him even though we were hundreds of miles away. My dad even gave away one of his special shirts to my boyfriend Callum, which I believe signifies his acceptance into our family and my dad’s approval. (Callum looks extremely handsome in his new aloha shirt – although he always looks handsome in anything he wears!)

 

It has been a pleasure to share this little-known history of the aloha shirt with you, my dear readers, and I’ll leave you here with this closing quote:

“Hawai‘i, awash in romance, marbled by different cultures, saturated with beauty, and compelling in contrasts, gave birth over fifty years ago to the renowned aloha shirt. There is probably no better garment in the world that captures a land’s ‘spirit of place.’ For half a century, the aloha shirt has been Hawai‘i’s most enduring and visible greeter and ambassador – like a lei, the aloha shirt is worn as a statement of one’s love for, and connection to, a most special place.” -Tommy Holmes, a Hawaiian legend

Sources: Craig Hara, President of Mr. Hawai‘i Inc., Brand: Go Barefoot; Alex Newman and Zakee Shariff, Fashion A-Z: An Illustrated Dictionary (2009); Dale Hope, The Aloha Shirt: Spirit of the Islands (2016).

Check out some of my favorite aloha shirt looks below!

 

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Pretty in Pink x Cyclicity

“Pink. The sweetest of all colors. Every woman should have something pink in her wardrobe. It is the color of happiness and of femininity.

I like it for blouses and scarves; I like it for a young girl’s frock; it can be charming for suits and coats; and it is wonderful for evening frocks.” -Christian Dior

Pink is one of my absolute favorite colors; it creates a bright and engaging aesthetic that immediately brings me joy. Thus, I think it should come as no surprise, that the rose gold hue of “millennial pink” has become one of my favorite fashion trends.

Photos courtesy of Tawni Eakman Photography and Fitcode

 

The color pink has been around since ancient times, but it was not a prominent feature in clothing until the Rococo Period of the 18th century. Pink had found its golden age in the new and fashionable Rococo trend of pastel colors, which swiftly swept through all the courts of Europe.

As you can see in these paintings by the famous Rococo painter Jean-Antoine Watteau, pink was a gender neutral color enjoyed by both the sexes.

“The Scale of Love (detail) Jean-Antoine Watteau, 1715-1718” by dvdbramhall. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

“Pastoral Gathering by Jean-Antoine Watteau” by mookiefl. CC BY-NC 2.0

 

Pink remained a pale pastel color until the 20th century, when famed designer Elsa Schiaparelli transformed the color into a brighter, bolder, and more assertive hue. As one of the leading fashion designers of the 1930s (and a rival to my beloved Coco Chanel), Schiaparelli embraced the new developments in the arts and technology and worked closely with Dadaist and Surrealist artists like Dalí and Cocteau. In 1931 she created a new bold and intense shade of pink named “Shocking Pink,” which takes its name from the perfume she launched called “Shocking.”

“Elsa Schiaparelli” by rocor. CC BY-NC 2.0

“Vogue on Elsa Schiaparelli” by Roxanne.pl. CC BY-SA 2.0

 

In the early decades of its fashion history, pink had defied a general gender assignment. It wasn’t until the 1950s that pink became strongly associated with girls and femininity. I believe the reasoning behind this follows the general trend of that postwar decade that saw the emergence of Dior’s New Look – a profound need for a transition from the more masculine wartime styles to an ultrafeminine and romantic silhouette. The 1950s was a decade that called out for a strict adherence to traditional gender roles – the women were to be women and the men to be men!  (Thank goodness I wasn’t alive then!)

“Bettina Graziani, Christian Dior 1950” by fervent-adepte-de-la-mode. CC BY-NC 2.0

“1950s Christian Dior floral gowns” by Bess Georgette. CC BY-SA 2.0

 

Now – back to pink! The turmoil of the 1960s and 70s and the questioning of traditional gender roles saw a large rejection of the color pink for more unisex and masculine styles. Fortunately for all of us (because who could live in a world where people didn’t dress in pink!?) the 1980s saw a resurgence of pink – especially that brilliant hot pink and “shocking pink” shades that I love!

“I Want Candy!” by Charles Rodstrom. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

 

Little girls were no longer the only ones wearing pink. In 1992, the pink ribbon became the official symbol of Breast Cancer Awareness Month. The 1990s and 2000s brought about a new appropriation of pink as strong, fierce, and powerful. I know that I definitely feel my most fierce and powerful when I’m wearing pink!

 

Sources: Christian Dior, The Little Dictionary of Fashion (1954); Eva Heller Psychologie de la couleur, effets et symboliques (2009); Akiko Fukai (ed.), Fashion: A History from the 18th to the 20th Century (2015); Bonnie English, A Cultural History of Fashion In The 20th and 21st Centuries (2013); Anna Broadway, “Pink Wasn’t Always Girly” (2013).

 

Check out some of my favorite pink looks below!






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